Notes Chapter 5

Respiratory:
1. In infants the lungs are proportionately large for the body.

2. Subglottal air pressure is comparatively higher than that of adults at comparable loudness levels.
3. Few alveoli are present in the lungs of the infant; adult values are approached by 7 years.

Development:

1. Birth: reversed breathing pattern
2. 3 years, 20-30 breaths per minute; primary maturation occurs from 3yrs-7yrs
3. 7 years adult like breathing
4. 10 years fully mature; 17-22 breaths per minute

These aspects of development are particularly critical in the cerebral palsy baby.

Phonatory/Resonatory:

Newborn vs Adult Vocal tract physiology:

1. much shorter vocal tract
2. relatively shorter pharyngeal cavity
3. a tongue mass placed relatively farther forward in the oral cavity
4. a gradual, rather than a right-angle, bend in the oropharyngeal channel
5. a high larynx; large arytenoids and cricoid cartilages compared to adults
6. a close approximation of the velopharynx and epiglottis (Kent & Murray, 1982)

Function:

1. The tract is functional for primary physiological function of sucking, and swallowing

Developmental changes

1. lowered laryngeal cartilages
2. loss of sucking pads.
3. Enlargement of thyroid cartilage
4. Epiglottis becomes larger and more firm
5. Arytenoids do not grow much more
6. Vocal folds lengthen permitting more movement
7. Posterior and vertical growth of the skull and laryngeal areas creating more room for the velum to move
8. More oral space
9. Changes in tongue in shape and mobility
10. By 6-8 mo. The vocal tract approximates the adult shape, a prerequisite for speech.

Characteristics of infant perceptual abilities

1. Infants prefer their own mothers’ voices as evidenced by sucking behaviors
2. One month olds demonstrate categorical perception for some speech sounds
3. Infants under three can detect differences in place and manner of articulation for consonants
4. Infants can discriminate between nonnative sounds up to about 6 months of age; by 10-12 months the ability disappears because of language experience with native tongue.
5. Perceptual constancy is noted for vowels as young as 5.5 months
6. Perception of phonemic contrasts have been observed in children 10-12 mo.
7. Discrimination between minimal pairs have been noted in children 27-35 mo.

Current thinking suggests

1. babbling behavior is not random but develop in a systematic manner
2. consonant-like sounds are restricted to a small set of segments
3. the transition between babbling and 1^st words is continuous
4. Late babbling and first words are similar in respect ot the sounds used and the way they are combined.

Perceptual:

1. Childs language develops prior to the first spoken meaningful words
2. word comprehension is evident at 7-9 months

1. Reflexive vocalization (Birth – 2 months)

--Vegatative sounds: coughs, grunts, feeding sounds

2. Cooing and laughter (2-4 mo)

--Quasi-resonant Vowel-like sounds (nasal quality)

--Some consonant-like sounds produced at the back of the mouth

3. Vocal play (4-6 months)

--series of vowel, consonant like sounds

4. Canonical babbling (6 mo)

Reduplicated and varigated babbling present

5. Jargon (10mo)

Syllable shape most common- open syllables

Babbling behavior appears to predict later language ability

1. quantity- appear related to later language measures
2. Diversity- predicts phonological and language proficiency

1. More language growth for those who use more contoid babble than those with vocoid babble.
2. Greater language growth is related to greater babble complexity
3. Greater language growth is related to increased diversity of contoid production

1. primarily monosyllabic
2. use of stops, followed by nasals and fricatives
3. bilabial and apical productions
4. rare use of consonant clusters
5. frequent us of central, mid-front and low-front vowels

There is a large diversity among children in terms of phonetic tendencies, consonant and vowel inventories, and word selection. The more words the child has, the less diversity between children.

1. This stage encompasses from about the 1^st year to about 18 months or from
2. 1^st word to when the child begins to put 2-word constructs together.
3. The child is using first words and invented words
4. The child is acquiring contrastive words rather than contrastive phonemes.

Characteristics of segmental form development

1. Phonetic variability
2. Limited syllable structures and segmental productions
3. There are preferences for certain sounds, syllable structures and sound classes/features

1. Salience—children acquire words that contain sounds within their phonological inventories
2. Avoidance—children avoid words that do not contain wounds within their inventory

1. Earyl inventories contain stops, nasals, and glides. Fricatives and liquids appear later.
2. More anteriorly produced sounds than posterior
3. a larger inventory of sounds in the word-initial than word final position
4. Word-initial inventories contained voiced stops before voiceless stops

And word-final inventories contained more voiceless stops than voiced stops

5. Sounds occurring by at 50% of the subjects by age 2

/h,w,b,t,d,m,n,k,g,f, and s/ word-initially

/p,t,k,n,r, and s/ word finally

6. /r/ appeared first in a word-final position
7. children primarily attempt words that contain sounds withntheir articulatory abilities.

What do these findings suggest in terms of therapy?

1. Children exhibit pitch variations to indicate differences in meaning
2. Prosody is used for place holders i.e., "all gone" being hummed until the segments came in
3. Prosody is used to mark different syntactical function

Development:

1. 10-12 mo. Falling contour (associated with naming and labeling)
2. 13-15 mo. Rising contour (associated with speech acts-ie. Requesting, greetings)
3. before 18mo high rising and high rising-falling contour (associated with emphsis)
4. at 18mo rising-falling (uh-oh) (associated with warnings, playfulness)

Intonational patterns develop prior to stress. Contrastive stress is noted at the beginning of the two-word stage (1year 6 mo)

Characteristics

1. Largest growth within the phonological system
2. At the beginning of this stage, Expressive vocabulary = 300 words; receptive vocabulary = 1,200
3. Transition of one word to two word utterances denoting ability to use semantic relationships and the beginning of syntax development
4. By the 5^th birthday, expressive vocabulary = 2,000 words and receptive vocabulary is about 8000-9000 words.
5. 90% of grammatical forms are in: questions, negative statements, dependent clauses, and compound sentences
6. 5 year olds can use "motherese"
7. 5year olds can tell jokes, and understand the principles of politeness
8. 5year olds have an almost complete phonological system

Generally all vowels are mastered by age 3

Normative data: Wellman (1931), Poole (1934), Templin (1957), Sander (1972), Prather (1975), and Arlt (1976)

Problems with the studies

1. Use of one-word responses don’t necessarily correspond to conversational speech
2. Choice of pictures with sounds appearing in different phonetic contexts and of different phonemic complexity can affect production
3. Not really documentation of phonological system but rather a phonetic inventory

Discrepancies between mastery level: Methodological problems

1. Criteria for mastery is different for the different studies

1. Poole- 100% of the children correct for the sound in all three positions
2. Templin 75% of the children correct for the sound in all three position
3. Prather 75% of the childrn correct for the sound in two word positions
4. Prather norms are based on incomplete data sets (the children would not respond to the stimuli) especially at the younger ages. Would the data sets omitted constitute data sets where errors would occur?

1. Stops and other fricatives were substituted for voice and voiceless "th" sounds.
2. Over half of the children used Gliding on /r/ and /l/ in over half; palatal fronting
3. 73% of the utterances were judged intelligible by unfamiliar testers, and children who used complex utterances were more difficult to understand. This suggests the complex interaction between phonological development and the acquisition of the language system. Phonological idioms/regression occur as the child attempts to master other complexities. When complex morphosyntactic or semantic structures are being learned the child’s previously correct articulation appear to be replaced by inaccurate ones.

1. a. Reduplication – early process - common during 50 word acquisition
2. b. Final consonant deletion – early process – disappears around age 3
3. c. Unstressed syllable deletion – disappears as late as 4 years
4. d. Cluster reduction – late process – may be 8 years before it is suppressed
5. e. Epenthesis – insertion of the schwa; common in children up to age 8 years

1. Substitution process

1. stopping- suppressed at different times depending on the fricative or affricative on which stopping occurs.
2. Fronting – velar fronting more prevalent, usually supressed by age 3;6
3. Gliding – Extends beyond age 5years

1. Assimilation

1. should be supressed by age 3

Prosodic Development

1. Adult intonational patterns appear before 1^st word
2. Stress patterns occur before the age of 2

Stress Development --With 2-word combinations comes contrastive stress

1. first just a pause between the two words and no contrastive stress
2. pause shortens
3. pause disappears and one word becomes stressed

1. Complete mastery of prosody- age 12

Characteristics: Phonological inventory complete by age 5, but complexity of words etc., they may make errors

Segmental Development

Perceptual skills are growing up until 14 years

1. phonemic categorization
2. recognizing words under quiet and noise – 10years
3. processing of continuing speech is slower for 5^th graders than for adults
4. ability to understand specifically structured sentences under difficult listening condition until the age of 15years
5. phonemic inventory considered complete by 7years however, some have found

1. cluster reduction for some is still a problem for /l,r, and s/ blends
2. epenthesis can continue until age 8years.

1. some prosody differences

1. timing of consonant clusters is not comparable to adults
2. voice onset time is not comparable to adults even after age 8
3. allophonic variations development may continue in the school aged child

1. language growth

1. increased vocabulary require imporve oral motor control and timing skills for the new phonological rules.
2. Acquisition of morphophonolgy requires learning of more phonological rules i.e., plural /s/. Children as old as 17 are still learning morphophonolgical rules.

Reading:

There is a close relationship between learning to speak and learning to read. Perceptual processing of sounds is one of the strongest predictors of later reading acquisition. Metaphonology is related to reading performance and develops when the child is learning to read at 5-6 years.

Children with problems with the poor reading skills have the following metaphonological skills:

1. phonological awareness (analyzing words into sounds and syllables).
2. Memory storage of phonetic coding
3. Phonetic perception in re-creating a phonological code

Children with persisting speech sound difficulties (beyond age 5;6) have problems with phonological awareness tasks and reading.

Prosody development: up until age 13

Development occurs in acquiring

1. grammatical contrasts
2. Contrastive stress at the word level
3. Contrastive stress at the sentence level